The Law and ICT Essay Example for Free

The Law and ICT Essay Introduction: Since the introduction of personal computers in 1980s, the use of computer technology in schools has mirrored that in western society as a whole. In many western schools, the availability of an internet-connected is considered as a right and a prerequisite for learning; many schools have considered or are planning to move to a ratio of one computer for each student. As computer technology has grown ubiquitous in the spheres of business and industry, a cultural expectation has developed that schools should â€Å"train students for the workplaces of the future†. This expectation has led, in turn, to public policy initiatives focused on encouraging adoption of various aspects of technology. Universities began training teachers to use technology in their classrooms, and governments and businesses alike began pouring money into schools. Though initially referred to by the catch-all term â€Å"educational technology†, reflecting the perspective of many in the research community that computers were another in the long line of tools used in service of technology, the rhetoric began to change in the late 1990s. Researchers and policymakers in the United Kingdom, excited about the prospects of computer technology for transforming teaching and learning, began to use the phrase â€Å"Information and Communication Technologies†, or ICT, to refer to the broad uses of computing in schools (Stevenson, n. p., 1997). Today, though there remain pockets where computer technology is less than pervasive in schools, many consider that schools in developed countries have reached a near-universal level of access to computing technology. Statistics bolster this argument: 99% of secondary schools in the US and UK has computers that can access the internet. The average student-to-computer ratio in UK secondary schools in 2004 was 4.9-to-one, while US schools reported an average ratio of 4.8-to-one in 2002. (NCES 2003, DFES 2004) At the same time the computer technology has become ubiquitous in schools, researchers have begun to examine what role computers should play in the educational endeavor. From early technophiles and champions of classroom-based computing came promises of increased learning efficiency and success for all learners (Papert, n. p., 1980), combined with a perhaps unpleasant notion of teachers being relegated to mere coaches for students’ individualized learning (Callister Dune, p 324-326, 1992). Critics, pointing to the amazing ability of the educational establishment to avoid systematic change in the face of even the most impressive of interventions, were skeptical of technology for a number of reasons (Chadwick, p 35-40, 2002). One result of this rivalry (Reynolds, Treharne, Tripp, p 151-167, 2003) was a proliferation of research comparing educational computing to traditional content delivery; collectively, the work found basically no difference in the educational outcomes of the different delivery methods (Salomon, p 71-72, 2002). Other research has provided significantly more valuable data on how computer technology can be used in educational contexts. Specifically, by combining research in the learning sciences with research in educational computing, researchers have been able to point out clear areas where computers can impact learning in highly positive ways (Brown, p 399 413, 1997). There remain questions, however, about computer technology in schools (Cuban, Kirkpatrick, Peck, p 813-834, 2001; Solomon, p 73- 75, 2002). In spite of growing bodies of research pointing to successful ways to integrate computers into learning environments, many problems exist. Teachers are often ill-prepared and fail to integrate ICT successfully even when they have the necessary hardware and software. Technology programs are often introduced into schools with little preparation and support, thus ensuring that only the most highly motivated teachers will take them up. Technology is often used in support of traditional teaching practices, even though it shows the promise of taking teaching and learning to a new, more learner-centered and thus more effective level (Reigeluth Joseph, p 9-13, 2002). ICT in Schools at UK As it is commonly used in UK schools today, ICT may consist of many technology-based tools which are used for teaching and learning in the schools: personal computers used by the teachers, staff, or students; any software that may run on those computers, whether designed or adopted for educational purposes or not; the Internet including various component applications but specifically the Web; static display technologies such as monitors and LCD projectors or interactive ones such as electronic whiteboards; printers and other output devices; video cameras, digital still cameras, audio recorders, digitized music, and other multimedia production equipment that connects to the computers; and other alternative input devices such as scientific measuring equipment. Perhaps because of how broadly effective computer technology has been in the workplace, or because of how it has changed the way many people communicate with friends and family, there seems to be a tacit assumption that technology should improve the experience of teaching and learning in schools (Tyack Cuban, n. p., 1995). The Function Performed by ICT in the System of Education ICT is capable of and definitely performs a number of functions within a school. The key functions that it can play are academic, ethnic, communal, managerial and professional .If ICT is implemented with a vigilant software and is set up logically, it can absolutely influence numerous areas of school life, such as the extent and intensity of the environment of learning, starting as of a strong perplexity of current practices of teaching to a ongoing development in value, in addition to offering a outstanding opening for the progress and improvement of teachers (Pedro et al. p 2, 2004). Function of Academic Implementation One of the important roles of ICT within the circumstances of school is to present a structure so as to encourage an upgrade and revise educational practices of teaching. Although there have been numerous optimistic results accounted for on a minor level, on a replicable and large scale no innovative sort of breakthrough is evident on account of ICT. However, both students and teachers may avail the benefit of an increased number of learning sources such as web pages and software packages. For effective classroom utilization the teachers would require matter and stuff related to the existing curriculum in addition to comprehensible approaches model patterns. If IT is included as a routine classroom practice the teachers will realize a better learning motivation and even an improved regularity and attendance at school. Thus, teachers could productively make use of this affirmative manner to open up novel educational approaches to involve students in learning activities more actively, rather than making them mere inactive knowledge recipients. (Pedro et al. p 3, 2004) Edifying, Communal, and Specialized Functions The edifying, communal and specialized functions of ICT are implemented principally out of a successful exercise of the enormous quantity of sources of knowledge and obtainable assistance at present for the whole community of education that are the parents, administrators, teachers and the students. Besides, at present the latest apparatus for instance the PDAs, Tablet PCs and science devices, and economical moveable keyboards having ability of text-handling, are definitely assisting teachers the world over. An Internet connected school can speed up interaction and exchange of ideas within the educational community not only on local or national extents but on a global level as well. The academic and learning projects which bring together both teachers and pupils from all over the world could intensify the eminence of the spoken distances, and could enlarge learners’ perspectives through permitting them to get acquainted with people of different ethos and may arouse collective performance and communal communication and interface. Such networks serve as an intermediary for teachers to set up smooth associations amid worldwide schools peers. The teachers might have great advantages by discussing their knowledge, troubles and uncertainties with teachers of other countries in the same field. E-learning is also assuming significance at present among the teachers for offering numerous training modules via Internet, consequently making new resources available for proficient advancement no matter what and where is the workplace of the participants. (Pedro et al. p 3-4, 2004) Organizational/managerial Function The functions performed by ICT in the school management are recognized as not much burdensome and can be successfully integrated into the administrative flow of information about pupils, teachers, syllabus and prospectus, financial plans and potential actions due to the learning scheme pipelines of information. ICT also proves to be an effective source of information for the community such as guardians, parents, investigators and politicians, regarding new policies and other educational reports. They also enable teachers to effectively keep their up-to-date records such as students’ marks and other academic or personal records with the latest upgrading. With the help of preformatted documents they can also generate the complete necessary facts and figures for the parents and management. Significantly, in digital format teachers are able to preserve their topic stuff like worksheets and exercises, lectures outlines, lesson plans, assessment papers and evaluations etc., with easier revision and updating, which could also be shared with other teachers. Actually, the multipurpose   apparatus for instance a CPU, a portable key board or a handheld gadget along with a and a network, may assist teachers in carrying out their   organizational responsibilities, is of course a persuasive reason to convince teachers for ICT training (Pedro et al. p 4-5 2004). However, there is also a growing body of research showing that ICT can have a beneficial impact and has significant potential for education. Not surprisingly, many cognitive scientists have rallied around the idea that computers and computer-aided learning environments can definitely have unique benefits for students if they are used in ways that support student learning (Bransford et al., n. p., 1999). Nevertheless, if not appropriately and vigilantly operated the same beneficial aspects of employing the ICT in schools may turn into extremely adverse situations for the administration as a number of hazards are involved in its usage. The research now moves on to study such hazards and the measures to overcome them.    Synopsis: Potential Hazards    A great number of constructive learning and communal advantages are offered by ICT to young groups, however regrettably it involves some hazards also. Young folks and kids are more susceptible to unknown or even known hazards in any walk of life on account of their mental immaturity and may harm themselves. Similarly while using ICT as well, specifically the Internet they are more exposed to the hazards. Moreover a number of immature individuals might involve themselves in some illegal or inappropriate activities. Several problems and threats may be abridged underneath (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 4, 2005). Since a number of problems summarized here mainly speak about ICT exercises not inside the school, but predictably numerous activities are instigated outside of course, but are gradually brought inside the school and are required to be handled by the school management. For example, bullying via chat or text messages will impact upon relationships within school; fanatical internet exploit by a student must affect his performance in the school, and his character variations and common comfort possibly will signify his involvement in improper activities. Though the schools are supposed to have suitable technologies to confine such unacceptable right to use, however one can’t deny the fact that students might lead to use a more complicated variety of handheld appliances within school which may provide them discrete right to use inappropriate resources. Therefore the policies of the schools regarding adequate employ, must contemplate about the equipments possessed by the students. Thus, a great responsibility lies with the school management not only to teach the students, but to educate them with acceptable manners and essential judgment ability which could guide them to continue legally and safely while working on internet and using various technologies. The adolescents habitual of too much internet practice, or occupied in threatening and illegal online behaviors, at times take professional assistance and therapy restore stability in their life whether online or offline. In this regard a vital role may also be played by the school for facilitating suitable assist (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 4, 2005). ICT and Fanatical internet Use The young people and children are more inclined to be fanatical while using the internet and its associated expertise. There are certain factors which indicate the level of priority achieved by the Internet in the life of an adolescent, as follows: Wasting of precious study time in online activities; Reducing time of sleep; Declining performance in the school; Bad effects on relationships with family members (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 5, 2005). Violation of Copyright Law The law of copy right is applicable on the internet also but is neglected at times by a number of adolescents when they either download music files or exchange them, prepare their academic assignments merely by cutting and pasting other writer’s works, or sometimes the complete project is purchased online available at some cheat sites devoid of considering the inferences and results (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 5, 2005). Illegitimate or Unsuitable conduct Teenagers are sometimes caught up in unsuitable, disruptive or illicit activities during employing the latest technologies. They can form online factions or gangs, and then behaviors which they initiate only for fun, for example expressing a disparate view for some other associate of the blog, may sometimes bring very undesirable and serious consequences. Another adverse feature for using the new technologies is online bullying which is supposed to offer an unidentified technique to the bullies who can torture their targeted people any time they want. Pleasure achieved by teasing others is a very dangerous psychological tendency and may lead to other criminal activities. Though such bullying doesn’t cause any physical hazard to its victims but definitely causes mental distress and embarrassment or at times fear when they receive any disgusting or threatening e-mail or text message while chat. Thus, their self-respect and psychological security is injured by this undesirable practice. A number of kids and adolescents get occupied in even more crucial behaviors. Some potential threats could be participation in stealing the identity or involvement in websites of detestation or religious groups, or sale or purchase of illicit or stolen commodities online. There is uncomplicated access available for gambling, sites guiding suicide attempts, buying and selling of arms, sites promoting hacking techniques, and offering formulas of preparing explosives or bombs and recipes of making drugs, cannot be ignored. Youths are often caught up in watching, keeping and owning, preparing and sharing offensive or pornographic descriptions or pictures. Such cases of illegal obscene or immoral racialism may be informed at Internet Watch Foundation or the police (IWF) (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 4-5, 2005) Contact with unacceptable resources The kids and adolescents can be exposed to unsuitable stuff either text or images, while using the internet, chat or e-mail. Such stuff could be of detestable or aggressive type, pornographic, supports illicit and unsafe action, or may be simply prejudiced and unsuitable for their age. This is undoubtedly an advantage of the web that it is accessible to everybody but regrettably it has adverse implications when people with severe biased, bigot or racially prejudiced outlooks get opportunities to extend their imprecise vision worldwide. The internet definitely serves a multitude for presenting huge quantity authorized and illegitimate stuff as far as pornography is concerned. Inquisitiveness concerning pornography is a usual element of sexual maturity; however adolescents could perhaps be offended with any of such stuff available online. The lasting effects of such revelation may be unexpected (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 5, 2005). Sexual Exploitation and Corporal Hazard The danger of corporal hazard is possibly a seriously upsetting and severe threat related to the internet and supplementary expertise. The unlawful groups make utilize the internet and associated assistance for instance the chat opportunities serve as a contact point for young people. The main objective of these groups is to create and promote such associations with adolescents to drag and involve them in unsuitable sexual abuse. Specific persons are usually targeted through pedophiles, showing a friendly dude with identical hobbies and leisure pursuit to initiate the online relation of friendship. Beginning with simple chat such relationship gradually develop into more closer one with cleverly gaining the trust of innocent youths, conceivably develop some other modes of contact just like the text messages being a preface of personal appointment. There is also a danger that when a child or youth provides personal facts online which may recognize them, and try to meet their online friends thus imposing a threat not only to their own security to their other relations also (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 5-6, 2005). School staff’s Illicit or Improper activities It is a regrettable fact that some of the schools staffs have also been found in some unsuitable and unlawful activities while using ICT. Such activities could be watching, sharing and circulating child pornographic or other impermissible stuff through e-mail. Therefore, the responsibility lies with the school management for educating and guiding their staffs to adopt decent online conducts, and vigilantly watching the networks system of the school for confirmation of any unsuitable pursuit. In an evident case of unacceptable pursuit by a staff member must get a penalizing rejoinder from school administration, for example police consultation etc (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 6, 2005) The Significance of Guaranteeing a Secured ICT Educational Atmosphere The creation of safe ICT educational atmosphere is the duty of all schools; however most of them are not aware of about how to start it. The schools are showered from different organizations’ ads assuring about their novel technical goods as a solution of all internet security issues encountered by the school. There is no doubt that these products are useful to an extent but can not be employed separately. Such technological sorts of instruments are successful when employed as a part of the framework of a wide-ranging program made for internet security, being summarized as under: Producing a protected ICT education atmosphere requires to comprise: Introduction of a wide-ranging education program for the entire school community ensuring internet security; There should be comprehensive infrastructure with selected duties, measures, strategies and guidelines well understood by the whole school; A useful variety of technological instruments should be made available; The composition of above mentioned constituents may differ from school to school. Apparently, the requirements for a small school with a few computers must be different than those having multifaceted set of connections, for thousands of students. But still, the requirement for above mentioned essential constituents will of course be the consistent (E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice, p 8, 2005) The Implication of Law: The Governmental Perspective against ICT Misuses With the above discussion it is quite clear now that significance of using ICT in the schools can not be denied on account of its various undeniable benefits, however, looking at the darker side of the picture we have also realized that there is an intense need to overcome the misuse of ICT to save our young generation from its potential hazards, either physical or psychological. Thus, like all developed nations of the world the Government of UK has also made numerous efforts to govern such abuses by imposing several criminal or civil laws. A few of such specifications are recapitulated as under: Protection of Children Act 1978, amended in 1994 by section 84 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act; The Telecommunications Act 1984; Malicious communication Act 1988 Copyright, designs and Patents Act 1988; Computer Misuse Act 1990; Protection from Harassment Act 1997; Crime and Disorder Act 1998; Data Protection Act 1998; Freedom of Information Act 2000; Sexual Offences Act 2003; Privacy and Electric Communications regulations 2003; Byron Review Computer Misuse Act 1990 This is the only act imposed only to handle computer related crimes and is effective in determining an incident and is value summarizing in some ensuing corporation records. In a school situation when a misuse incident is evident a reaction strategy is formed and permitted by main judgment officials chosen from within the school, contemplation must be paid to: In case of misuse discovery who will be informed first? Who is going to head the response plan and inspection panel? If there is need of some extent of police involvement or the services of any exterior professional inspection expertise? The concluding and decisive action in executing a successful event reaction strategy is conveying the pertinent strategy and measures all over the school. Training distinctive faculties and picking in-house advocate who may guarantee the carrying out of the policy, and make sure that each one comprehends their responsibilities and necessities for any contingency. As a minimum requirement it is sensible to inform the main faculties and engage them in the initial stage of a case. In this way the commitment to process is ensured. Because of that assurance, the subsequent inspection may attain a buy-in as of everybody concerned and effect in a organized case response (Janes, p 1, 2006). Discovering a Misuse Case After determining the prospective case, the nature of misuse case must be discovered. The police participation is not advisable in any or all cases unless some particular type of crime is involved. The cases of pedophilic nature or which are alleged as planned offenses are needed to be reported. Such categorization of cases may assist in deciding the intensity of reaction and ensuing allotment of suitable means. Isolate the crime setting In the academic world the prime enticement on the discovery of a misuse case is for a speedy glance and the same is definitely the most terrible fault which may endanger some inspection. Fragility of an electronic proof is confirmed, which may easily be amended, smashed or damaged by unsafe treatment or assessment. Hence, particular preventative measures must be adopted in recording, gathering, conserving and investigating such proofs. Unsafe use of such   forensically reliable methods could result in unfeasible verification or an imprecise inference. Therefore, the precise method must be used to protect the reliability of electronic proof. While a computer-based offense is consigned, the computer is well thought-out as an offense outlook similar to any concealed proof and is not interfered with. In the initial stage no change should be made in the state of electronic appliances and their atmosphere. Any interaction might change the content and the evidence might be corrupted (Janes, p 1, 2006). Beginning interviews Each and every probable witness present at the location must be noted preferably by recording the particulars of site, time of access and link with probable conjectures. Collect all helpful information for the purpose of investigation for instance e-mail, set-up and safety of passwords, identity of user and the suppliers of internet service. The notes must be completed with details of all supplementary school belongings which are found with a conjecture, for instance PDAs, cell and mobile phones or laptops. Assembling Verifications Subsequently a specialized computer forensic inspection panel is called upon, whether internal or exterior experts, in order to recognize and protect the probable verification means. Just about positively, inside the academic surroundings the most reliable verification means is suspect’s regularly used computer. If the suspects used computer and the victim’s used computer are accessible must be protected. In case of no such access attention must be paid to the backing tapes and the host computer that is the server by means of which the information might surpassed.   The accurate particulars about computers are required to be recorded such as model and type, serial number and make etc. For an on computer, details about screen should be recorded or photographed. For an off computer other facts are to be recorded. In case of the presence of other drives, a note should be made for this along with the particulars of their media. As soon as electricity is detached the computer must be preserved in a carton and be shifted to a safer place for further inspection (Janes, p 1, 2006). Representing a Conclusion By taking into account each and every proof at hand, the ultimate phase of inquiry reaches that is to extract a wrapping up. The ending have to be impartial, balanced and established on unquestionable truth. On this concluding phase it is advisable to take expert or legitimate advice to move on in right direction (Janes, p 1, 2006). Data Protection Act 1998 Significant Features to be Considered  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Individual facts have to be acquired impartially and legally. The focus of data ought to be informed the data organizer or concerned establishment; the person representing   the data organizer; the objectives data are intended to be processed for; plus on whom the facts could be revealed. Educational institutions do this for students at the time of registration. Private dispensation of data can be completed only if some particular provisions are fulfilled comprising the subject consent or the legal requirements data organizer. Supplementary provisions have to be fulfilled for dispensing the vulnerable individual data, related with customs, political judgment, and belief, relationship with trade union, physical condition, sexuality or illicit history of the subject.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The personal data is covered by this new Act in either of the forms, manual or electronic such as card indices or paper files, apprehended by a prearranged and pertinent arrangement of filing.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The reasons reported by the educational institution to the commissioner of data protection must be considered while individual data processing. The data Protection Representative must be discussed with while any new dispensation of data.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Keeping the individual data up to date and precise is very essential and must not be maintained and kept longer than the required period.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Suitable safety procedures are to be followed against illegitimate or unlawful dispensation of individual data and in contradiction of unintentional damage, or loss of individual data. This comprises training of staff for data security as an organizational gauge and recurring endorsement of data files in addition to data encryption as technical methods.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The individual data is not allowed to be shifted exterior of the boundaries of the European Economic Area except exclusive releases is employed with the consent of data subject. It may comprise printing of individual data through internet (Mukerji, p1, 2001). Privileges of Data Subject This Act offers noteworthy privileges to persons regarding individual data apprehended in relation to them by data regulators. Such privileges are as follows: A person is allowed to have a copy of his individual data in order to make a subject access request; The data regulator is required assure that they won’t be affected by any specific resolutions as such decisions are established only by an mechanized decision-making course of action; To make sure that no loss or damage is caused to the data while processing; The data processing must be prevented keeping in view the direct marketing as the primary objective; Necessary steps to be taken in case of any damage suffered by the data regulator for an infringement of the Act; Necessary action to be taken for erasing, blocking, rectifying, or destroying any erroneous data; If there is a doubt regarding contravention of a provision of the Act, a request can be made to the Data Protection Commissioner for an inquiry of such matter (Mukerji, p1, 2001).       Freedom of Information Act 2000 Nature of the Act In 2000, the government of UK approved the Freedom of Information Act. In speculation this permits individuals or associations to request information from the state which, unless it falls within one of the exemptions officials must hand over inside 20 days or longer if they require some period to choose whether it should be released. Whitehall gave itself four years to arrange for this significant enlightening modification in UK, open government has frequently been seen as a disagreement in terms, but on January 1, the waiting was over. Consequently, civil servants were active destroying documents and removing emails in an attempt to make sure that they wont be required to discharge them now the Act is applicable. A number of Departments have twice the number of documents shattered yearly (Amory, p 1, 2005). The Types Organizations Under the Act Approximately 100,000 public organizations are distressed. That means the main government ministries, but also every NHS Trust, the Post Office, the police and, more incomprehensibly, the Sea Fish Authority, the Treasury Valuation Committee, the Wine Standards Board, the Covent Garden Market Authority and the British Potato Council. Some public establishments, though, are exempted counting MI5 and MI6, the courts, the National Criminal Intelligence Service and the SAS. (Amory, p 1, 2005). Provisions of the Act All evidenced information such as written accounts, tapes, emails, diaries, letters, and contracts. Merely concerning anything, actually, so long as it doesnt fall within one of the 27 exemptions. Though, these are so extensively outlined that a smart civil servant could put just about any document into as a minimum one grouping. Anything that is commercially private associates to national safety, involves worldwide relations, is individual information about a person, might destabilize the requirement for openness in the formulation of government strategy, might bias the economic welfare of the UK, and is connected to an official analysis and so on. Ultimately, they dont have to offer any matter that would, in the case of central government, cost more than 600 pounds to collect, nor in the case of other guanos, more than 450 pounds .There is no time boundary on the material applied for information (Amory, p 1, 2005). Gathering Information Requests can be submitted to the organizations apprehensive in writing, by email or by fax, relating the information required. There is no need to give a reason for the request. It is also useful to mention if want the material photocopied or the replies sent by post or email. There is no charge for such a autonomy-of-information request and the power must respond inside 20 working days   (Amory, p 1, 2005). Appeal against Refusal An appeal against a refusal can be made to discharge information to a self-reliant arbitrator, the Information Commissioner, who will request for a public interest test. In other words, even if the required material falls within one of the exemptions, he can order it revealed if its publication would be in the public interest. It remains to be seen whether he has the decision to make such an method work in practice, but even if he does; the Prime Minister or any other Cabinet Minister can refuse his pronouncement and hold back publication of the information at any time. This catchall clause, which will apparently be used to avoid any politically susceptible information seeing the light of day, was contentious when added to the Act (Amory, p 1, 2005).    Potential Outcomes Much depends on the information commissioner, Richard Thomas. If he applies the public interest test robustly, some interesting information could find its way into the public domain. For instance, private sector firms involved in Private Finance Initiative contracts are already panicking that there will be requests to see the details of their deals, revealing the enormous and unjustified profits theyve made. The number of ministerial refusals will also be significant, as will the attitude of the courts, which will be able to judicially review such vetoes and could overturn them. The most likely outcome is a brief flurry of revelations, followed by a new culture in Whitehall that avoids committing any sensitive information to paper whenever possible. One other issue is the extent to which the Act will apply to EU documents, as it could allow us to penetrate the obsessive secrecy that surrounds decision-making in Brussels. Sexual Offences Act 2003 The Sexual Offences Act 2003, which received Royal Assent on 20th November 2003, brings wide-reaching changes to current legislation on sexual offences. There are a number of specific sexual offences against children which feature within Part I of the Act. These relate to the rape or sexual assault of a child, sexual activity with a child, and the abuse of a position of trust which leads to a sexual offence against a child, meeting a child following sexual grooming and sexual activity with a child family member. Other offences relate to encouraging, arranging or causing the involvement of a child in prostitution or pornography. Some of these offences are new, while others are set to replace existing offences under, for example, the Indecency With Children Act 1960 (See Schedule 7 of the Act). This article focuses upon a specific area of the Act in order to evaluate whether the Act (hereafter the SOA) is likely to achieve one of the Government’s main aims, of giving children ‘the greatest possible protection under the law from sexual abuse’ (Burney, p 28-36, 2003). The focus of analysis is the creation of a new offence relating to sexual grooming under s.15. This is a significant development, given that research has shown that an opportunity to sexually abuse a child is more likely to emerge following an act of sexual grooming; during which, the individual may convince the child that what he or she is suggesting the child do is both natural and commonplace (Lanning, p 267, 1984). The introduction of this offence also follows calls for such legal reform by both the Internet Taskforce on Child Protection and child protection groups and demonstrates the increased societal awareness of the way in which such grooming can occur via internet chartrooms. Moreover, the dangers of sexual grooming have been recently recognized by the judiciary. In the case of Re Attorney General’s Reference (No.41 of 2000) [2001] 1 Cr App R (S) 372, one of the reasons why the Court of Appeal increased the defendant’s original sentence for indecent assault and making indecent photographs of a child was because he had sexually groomed a vulnerable child with special needs. Increasing the higher sentence, Rose LJ stated that ‘The gravity [of the offence] lay . . . in the grooming of this vulnerable and handicapped boy, over a period of time and the giving of money and other gifts’ (at 375). The first section of this article outlines the new offence of meeting a child following sexual grooming. Section two then provides an analysis of the offence and identifies the reasons why it is a necessary addition to the existing law. A critical analysis of the requirement of proving a harmful ulterior intent in order for the new offence to be made out follows in section three. Finally, section four examines the other new offences under the Sexual Offences Act that could relate to acts of sexual grooming, in order to place the s.15 offence in the context of the wider protection from sexual abuse that the Act seeks to offer children. The issues that this article examines should also be of wider intrinsic academic interest. For example, the analysis of the offence relating to sexual grooming raises the broader issue of the legal identification and demonstration of a harmful intent in a so-called ‘thought’ crime. Moreover, the overriding aim of the article is to address the increasingly pertinent question of how the existing law could be effectively developed in order to offer greater protection to children prior to the actual occurrence of sexual abuse Byron Review A good deal expected Byron Review was made available on 27th March 2008. This review is actually a wide-ranging account that glances at the threats to kids from being bare to possibly injurious or unsuitable matter available to them in video games and on internet. This report signifies the requirements of kids and adolescents and guides about protecting them from adversities while using video games and internet and provides them a protected environment where they are able to enjoy their favorite games and net-surfing (Leading Article, p 1, 2008). The author of this review is Dr. Tanya Byron who is a famous psychologist for children. She has planned a nationwide approach regarding internet security. Dr Byrons main concern is impractical relations threats deforming her insight regarding the issue she is dealing with. The kids and even adolescents are groomed by the pedophiles by means of the chat-rooms, but it doesn’t seem possible. A number of video games involve excessive viciousness and bloodshed which definitely seem to have negative effects upon a child’s psychology. Dr, Byron has been renowned for her constructive strategies presented in a TV serial â€Å"Toddler-taming†, is not in favor of presenting a persuasive argument complete panoply of controls. She suggests that parental groups, nationwide plan, and governmental authorities as a balanced reaction to an issue which is definitely concerns the entire family and not merely the internet. She tries to explain that access to all available information is not the real concern but it is the mental maturity level of the individual accessing and perceiving it. There is a constant shower of suggestions and threats over parents and the title performance of this exceptional disaster in case of any offense. The implicit but recurring inference that parents are required to assume their responsibility to save the life of their children by securing them from any abuse. She believes that now we are on a stage where some rebalancing is required that is to recognize effective parenting doesn’t only mean to provide protection but is also meant to offer some extent of freedom also. (Leading Article, p 1, 2008). The freedom of using internet and surfing online is available to almost all children. Numerous of them utilize it for completing their challenging assignments and there are some others who find it an essential means of knowledge on specific topics and issues. Thus, for a great majority it serves a significant learning aid and a source for exploring the world around. Its equal availability to everyone is also a plus point. It is an unrestricted; un arbitrated liberty, saturated with unpredicted knowledge, smuggled information, tiresome chat, crazy plotting speculations and the uncultivated envisages of minute groups of people for their underground concerns. There is fewer indications, effortless reach plus perhaps hazardously unidentified. Sporadically indecent and unappreciated facts and descriptions are conveyed to individuals. Thus like all scientific discoveries the internet also has both pros and cons (Leading Article, p 1, 2008). This also a segment of life which is handled by the parents very cautiously. The kids have embedded it in life and parents appreciate them to use it for exchange of ideas, searching and investigation. The problem actually lies with the parents who seem to be perplexed with parental controls sort of proposals and are doubtful regarding computer games and their respective ratings. The parents are usually scared for their children using the chat-rooms and assume it as place of trouble, while a majority of children is quite aware about the safety rules. Thus Dr. Byron suggests for training parents in dealing with such problems as she believes that parenting means guiding kids to handle challenging situations and probably risky matters in a secured way. If parents positively understand the situation they can convince the kids in a friendly manner to limit the surfing time and to adopt an inflexible system for video games ratings (Leading Article, p 1, 2008). Conclusion After a thorough research we have realized the negative aspects and all potential adversities while using ICT at schools. We have also studied the measures adopted by the government and the legal support provided to cyber victims in the form of various Acts being imposed from time to time. However, under these Acts an uncountable number of such online culprits are being caught and executed everyday, but with the passage of time and with the development ever increasing technology new devices and techniques are coming in every other day which are being used by evil-minded people for fulfilling their negative desires. Besides all the legitimate support provided by the government it is essential to develop awareness about self security, specifically the children and youths who are generally victimized in such offenses. Recommendations A great responsibility lies on the shoulders of schools as they have the targeted age group. Schools need to formulate comprehensive and secured ICT policies for safer employment. ICT facility offered to the teachers, students, staff and other community members must be completely owned and monitored by the administration. Appropriate guidelines must be provided to all users clearly notifying the extents and limits. It should be generally restricted to activities in relevance with school. There should be vivid information about:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Freedoms  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Privacy  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Suitable use of resources  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Authorization of access  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unauthorized uses Moreover, an appropriate organizational structure is required to be created in the school management as follows: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Governing Body: assumes the constitutional duties regarding children safety and decent internet usage. Some of such duties could be:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To develop a consciousness among student about both threats and benefits of ICT usage;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To crate a clear understanding of current school policy regarding ICT usage;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To support the head of the school in handling the media for in case of any offense;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To arrange enough resources for implementing internet security solutions;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To promote internet safety awareness among parents also. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Head of the School: definitely needs to take keen interest towards the creation of a protected ICT associated learning atmosphere. He/ she may:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Keep the final authority and responsibility of overall ICT security while assigning routine works to the ICT coordinator;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Assure that ICT coordinator is provided with essential resources, time, control and cooperation in performing his duties;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Guide the ICT coordinator to create a culture in the school regarding the internet security in the school  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Inform the governing body about all concerned strategies and issues.    3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The ICT Coordinator: Any senior teacher with prompt ICT skills may be promoted to this post or a new member be hired to fulfill the responsibility of ICT security supervision. He may:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plan ICT security guidance programs for students keeping in view the school activities and available resources and support;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Maintain an incident-log regarding ICT security;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prepare a workshop for parents in conference with other teachers;  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Propose for the appraisal of current policy in the light of rising tendencies after examining the log. These are only a few general suggestion, however, every school has its own culture and its management can better decide the measures to adopted in the direction of crating a safe ICT learning environment, the primary concern is to realize its importance in the sequence of priorities. References Amory, Heathcoat. Edward. (2005). How the Information Act Works; Q A. Available at http://www.questia.com/read/5008215484   Bransford, J., Brown, A. L. Cocking, R. R. (Eds.) (1999). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press. Brown. A. L. (1997). Transforming Schools into Communities of Thinking and Learning about Serious Matters. American Psychologist, 52(4). Burney, E. (2003) ‘Using the Law on Racially Aggravated Offences’, Criminal Law Review, January. Callister, T. A. J., Dune, F. (1992). The Computer as Doorstop: Technology as Disempowerment. Phi Delta Kappan. Chadwick, C. (2002). Why Computers are Failing in the Education of our Children. Educational Technology, 42(5). Cuban, L., Kirkpatrick, H., Peck, C. (2001). High Access and Low Use of Technologies In High School Classrooms: Explaining an Apparent Paradox. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4). E-safety Developing whole-school policies to support effective practice. (2005) Available at: publications.becta.org.uk/download.cfm?resID=25934 Janes, Simon. The effective response to computer crime. Computer Weekly. Available at: eLibrary. Proquest CSA. ROBINSON SECONDARY SCH. 09 Jun 2008. http://elibrary.bigchalk.com Lanning, K. (1984) ‘Collectors’, in A. Burgess (ed), Child Pornography and Sex Rings. Lexington, Mass: Lexington Books. Leading article: The Byron review: Internet angst. Guardian, The. 28 Mar 2008. 36. eLibrary. Proquest CSA. ROBINSON SECONDARY SCH. 10 Jun 2008. http://elibrary.bigchalk.com Mukerji, M. (2001). The Data Protection Act 1998 – A Summary. Available at: http://www.dpa.lancs.ac.uk/summary.htm Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas. New York: Basic Books. Pedro Hepp K. Enrique Hinostroza S. Ernesto Laval M. Lucio Rehbein F. (2004). Technology in Schools: Education, ICT and the Knowledge Society. Available at: www1.worldbank.org/education/pdf/ICT_report_oct04a.pdf Reigeluth, C. M., Joseph R. (2002). Beyond Technology Integration: The Case for Technology Transformation. Educational Technology, 42(4). Reynolds, D., Treharne, D., Tripp, H. (2003). ICT- The Hopes and the Reality. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2).    Salomon, G. (2002). Technology and Pedagogy: Why Don’t We See the Promised Revolution? Educational Technology, 42(2). Stevenson, D. (1997). Information and Communications Technology in UK Schools:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An Independent Inquiry. London, UK: Independent ICT in Schools Commission

Bernoulli Principle Essay -- essays research papers

Airflow over an airfoil Flight is one of the most important achievements of mankind. We owe this achievement to the invention of the airfoil and understanding the physics that allow it to lift enormous weights into the sky. All flight is the result of forces acting upon the wings of an airplane that allow it to counteract gravity. Contrary to popular belief, the Bernoulli principle is not responsible for most of the lift generated by an airplanes wings. Rather, the lift is created by air being deflected off the wings and transferring an upward force to those wings. The most important factor in determining the lift generated by an airplane is the angle of attack. The angle of attack is the degree measure from the horizontal that a wing is elevated or declined. When the angle of attack is between 1 and 20 degrees, the most lift is generated. To find the lift generated by a particular area of wing in a standard airfoil shape, a teardrop with the fat end facing forward, the equation L=Cl 1/2 (pV2)S. Cl is the lift coeficent, which is determined by the shape of the airfoil and the angle of attack. P stands for the air mass density, V for the velocity of the air passing over the wing, and S for the area of the wing when viewed from above or below. As the air flows over the wing producing lift, it grabs onto the wings surface and causes drag. Drag can be measured by the equation D=Cd 1/2 (pV2)S, much like the lift equation. The drag coeficent Cd is found, again, by determining ...

Tragedy in Tom Brennan

Question: It is impossible to avoid conflict in life, but this tragedy was preventable. Do you agree? Do you believe that tragedies only happen to others? In the novel ‘The story of Tom Brennan’, by JC Burke, she highlights in the most severe way that tragedies do occur. My opinion to the matter at hand is that tragedies do happen. There will always be unavoidable conflict andI agree with the first statement in the paragraph. If you think about the events that took place in the novel, you will understand that the story line is not a happy one. As described by JC Burke, the novel outlines grief in many instances, sadness in the way of Nicole and Luke’s families. Although these emotions are outlined there is still bright and happy emotions involved. It is impossible to avoid conflict; it is just a matter of the amount of tragedy you receive. The amount of conflict you receive can also reflect on a person’s personality, how they respond and handle otherwise terrible issues. If you can stay strong through the tough times in life, you can overcome the obstacles that are thrown at you. There are many stages a person goes through during times of tragedy; it varies between people, religions and races. Some of the stages are depression, being so sad you can’t find any way out. Anger is another, showing you miss the person/s so much rage takes over your life. These are just some of the stages one goes through during tragedy. Obviously the accident in the novel is a tragedy, however there was definitely negligence involved in the events that took place on the night of the accident. Daniel was intoxicated and the passengers knew that so I question the judgment of them, never the less the responsibility lies with the driver and in this case it is Daniel. His actions leading to the death of his friends Nicole and Luke were unacceptable, also his actions lead to the impairment of his cousin Fyn. His cousin Fyn was one of his great friends, they did everything together, played for the same rugby team, training alongside each other and just generally having a great time. Now though Fyn is not capable of doing the things he ones was able to do. He will no longer share his passion for rugby he once had, although he would give anything to play there is nothing he can do.

Dissertation On International Public Relations Education - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4206 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Introduction The main theme of the dissertation is internationalisation of public relations education. It is quite a broad topic and can be reviewed and discussed from different points of view. In this regard the selected literature first examines international public relations concepts and secondly an impact it has on public relations education. Therefore, literature review has been divided into the following major themes: International public relations (IPR) and International public relations education (IPRE). The chapter will begin by presenting the main debates about international public relations and its concepts alongside with a brief overview of factors influencing it. It will be followed by a section presenting state of research on IPR. The discussion will then move to section two international public relations education, exploring the requisites and challenges for internationalisation. Finally the chapter will summarise the key themes and points identified. The major part of the literature review focuses on contemporary research, defined as 1989-2009. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Dissertation On International Public Relations Education" essay for you Create order International PR A growing number of publications document the development and challenges of the public relations in every major continent and region of the world (Nally, 1991, Moss et al., 1997, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003b, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Freitag and Stokes, 2009). This research refers term global PR to globalisation of the profession, which is being practises and recognised in more countries throughout the globe, while International PR refers to the planning and implementation of programmes and campaigns carried out abroad or for international audience. Hence international PR education refers to the process of adopting professional training to International PR concepts and demand. Public relations is still relatively new concern for management, even though its modern origins can be traced to the end of the last century (White, 1991). According to (Cutlip, 1994), a key researcher in the history of public relations in the U.S., the first international public relations agency à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Hamilton Wright Organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ was founded in 1908. International communities of professionals and scholars are increasingly interested in transferring knowledge, experiences, and best practices from national to transnational scenarios. This advancement is generated by the increasing role of public relations which is driven largely by the influence of new information technologies and globalisation (Flodin, 2003). Drawing upon this, DiStaso et al. (2009) discussed the effects of globalisation, that began with the Maastricht Treaty and NAFTAA in 1992, the WTO in 1994 and claiming it had great impact on the public relations industry. According to Szondià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (2009, p.115) International public relations is the planned communication activity of a (multinational) organisation, a supra- or international institution or government through interactions in the target country which facilitates the organisation (or government) to achieve its policy or business objectives without harming the interests of the publics. There have been papers which presented international PR to be simply about how to overcome barriers that are created by other cultures, including language, laws or cultural issues, which are often indentified as problems (Wilcox et al., 2001), rather than opportunities or the manifestation of diversity. The most frequently referenced paper which stands against IPR has been Angell (1990) asserted that the variance between local countries was so great as to preclude any possibility of globalisation. A much different study, also highly referenced, has been provided by Pavlik (1987), who as early as the 1980s considered IPR one of the most rapidly growing areas of the profession, and one of the least understood. The problem with defining difference between domestically and internationally done public relations is that there is not enough research or critical assessment. While basic principles do not change, the way they are carried out from culture to culture and country to country, and the attitudes and values embedded within those different cultures or countries, are different (Wakefield, 2007b). A similar study was conducted by Botan (1992, p. 157), who argued that international public relations is always intercultural. The existing public relations body of knowledge, and public relations curricula around the world, have a U.S. bias (Sriramesh, 2002). U.S. paradigm, however, strikes with the idea of that European or non-U.S. perceptions of public relations become more of value in the twenty first century. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield (2007b), who have been practicing and researching in the area of IPR for almost two decades, believes that principles and practices of PR in Europe, emphasising social role of public relations, are more promising for effective PR in the multinational than the American-based PR-as-marketing-tool approach. He, alongside the majority of new PR schools, supports paradigms of PR incoming out of places other than the U.S. Therefore, need and call for the elsewhere theories and concepts was also a factor for a research in international/global PR. Ovaitt (1988, p.5) made an interesting suggestion saying that it was not a popular idea with marketing and advertising experts when they started thinking about internationalisation decades ago and it was not popular with public relations practitioners back to late 1980s. The idea is that what these professionals do for a living might be done on a global basis à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" global in the sense of achieving some significant level of standardisation, not only of what is offered to customers, but also how it is presented and promoted. Public relations as a profession is not necessarily understood and practised in the same manner all around the world. This is not news per se, as several scholars (Sharpe, 1992, Vercic et al., 1996, Taylor, 2000, Rhee, 2002, Valentini, 2007) for many years have underlined that public relations requires a global understanding of cultural differences. Different studies (Kent and Taylor, 1999, Lee, 2005) show that public relations practitioners are increa singly required to be able to communicate with different international publics, no matter the size of the organisation they are working for, or whether it is private or public, including non-profit organisations. After the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Excellence Study yielded a review of normative principles (Grunig, 1992), Vercic et al. (1996) explained the importance of identifying five contextual variables that influence the practice of the normative principles. Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (Vercic et al., 1996) proposed a global theory of public relations that was elaborated by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003a, 2003b, 2009) in their Global Public Relations Handbook and by Sriramesh (2009) in a special issue of PRism. Their global public relations theory attempted to answer the question of whether public relations theory and practice should be unique to each country or culture or whether it should be practiced in the same way everywhere. Authors answered this question by theorising that global public relations should fall in the middle between standardisation and individualisation (Grunig, 2009). The theoretical framework of Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) has been used to assess the status of public relations in countries around the world. Contextualised studies are the core component of the global public relations concept. As Vercic (2009) reported, international PR practices should represent the best practices anywhere because of their necessary complexities and reach. Global theory is not a positive theory, which describes a type of public relations that currently is practiced everywhere in the world. Research, such as that reported in Sriramesh and Vercic (2003, 2009), does show that there are many idiosyncrasies in public relations practice around the world that reflect cultural differences. It also shows that the one worldwide universal in public relations practice is what is J. Grunig have called the press agentry/publicity model (Grunig et al., 1995)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ the least effective of the models. Rather, their global theory is a normative theory that argues that public relations will be most effective throughout most parts of the worl d (Grunig, 2009, p.2). Emphasising cross-cultural effects on reputation in multinational organizations Wakefield (2007b, 2008) argues that there still is an important distinction between global and domestic public relations practices, and that understanding those differences will contribute to better global practice. More specifically, recent research has also called into questions of need to understand how culture affects public relations. There are numbers of key researches (Grunig et al., 1995) who have written papers specifically on the subject. A similar study was conducted by Neff (1991), who has indicated that economic development is leading public relations firms down a path requiring knowledge of culture and language in addition to public relations. Perhaps one of the most influential recent publications on multiculturalism in public relations education was produced by Sriramesh (Sriramesh, 2002, Sriramesh, 2003). He has also reported that public relations education has not kept pace with the rapi d globalisation that has occurred since 1992 (Sriramesh, 2002). Sriramesh (2009) called for a need for a more thoughtful representation of many of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"generic principlesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of public relations practice to suit the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"local environmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, so that the body of knowledge is more holistic and relevant to global demands. However, there still is a room for an assumption that not all the practitioners require international training and international perspective. RESEARCH / CRITICS: Since the advent of the Internet, it is even more tempting to view PR practice as the same anywhere, and therefore it decreases attempts to produce research or principles that need to view à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“cross-border PRà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? as differentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Wakefield, 2007a). Despite the numerous calls for research, reviewed works and studies on global (national) public relations released in the 2000s (see table 1) (Portugal, United States see table) have recorded that this area of research is underrepresented. Despite global trends underlining increased internationalisation, these results can be interpreted to indicate that Researchers have not paid enough attention to the international perspective. An important indicator is the place international public relations occupy in the list of priority research topics. One recent example is a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Study of the Priorities for Public Relations Researchà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ conducted by Deputy Dean of Media School of Bournemouth Univ ersity (UK) Tom Watson (Watson, 2008, Watson, 2007)[1].He sent 26 public relations topics to a Delphi study panel and the Top Ten PR research topics were identified, however, international perspective was excluded from the list. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield responded critically to Watsonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Delphi study: First, I was surprised in finding that the topic fell all the way out of the top ten. After all, arenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t PR issues and challenges, along with its overall scope of practice, becoming more international with each passing year?(2007a, p. 6) Nonetheless he added: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“There really are no more studies being done on international public relations now than have been done over the course of the last three decades. Those that are being published are increasingly making such statements as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“there is no such thing as local PR anymore,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“today, everything is global.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Well, if this represents what academics and practitioners are thinking, then it would stand to reason that no real different research needs to be doneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ that ANY PR principles, even if they are all traditionally domestic in nature, would suffice for research or practice anywhere in the worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (2007a, p.7). The seminal critique in this area is also by Sriramesh (2009, p.6), who argues: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“When scholars think of, and discuss, public relations, the global perspective is often overlookedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Srirameshà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (2009) critique of Mackey (Mackey, 2003), who claimed to introduce the various contemporary theories of public relations in the inaugural issue of Prism is also indicative: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The author attempted to review à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the changing vistas in public relations theoryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?, there was not a single mention of any advances in global public relations theorising in that piece even though by 2003/that time there were several advances worth reportingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?(2009, p.8). Another example is Distasso (2009). Authors surveyed 312 public relations executives and educators to examine how well practitioners and instructors perceive public relations students to be prepared for the practice, the content and value of public relations curricula and, the future of public relations education in the United States. Even though scholar mentioned globalisation as a factor increasingly influencing public relations practice he had not included it in the questionnaires or research questions. Somewhat it contrast are papers from the annual International Public Relations Research Symposium Bledcom, which reflect the diverse and up-to-date research traditions amongst scholars working in the field of public relations both within the USA and Europe (Moss et al., 1997, Newman and Vercic, 2002, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003a, Sriramesh, 2004, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Van Ruler et al., 2008, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2009). These are scholars, who systematically examines the priorities for PR research and determine international agenda These differences in research agenda are reflected/explained, to some degree, in the/by Scholars like Sriramesh, Vercic, Wakefield and others highlighted the important point that an issue of international public relations is not reflected enough in the research questions. International public relations education (IPRE) As a corollary to the process of globalisation has been the recognition of the need to make public relations education more internationally focused and future public relations professionals more internationally and interculturally competent (Lane DiStephano, 1992) / Huthcings et al., 2002 There have been numbers of calls for new public relations curricula aimed at educating staffs that can understand and meet increasing international social, economic and political complexities and challenges. (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, p. 13). The International Association of Universities (1998) supported the need for business schools to be more international in their strategy, claiming higher education must integrate an intercultural dimension into its teaching and research, if it is to fulfil its role and maintain excellence. (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 58). Another rationale for an international public relations course is the accelerating pace of societal and technological change today. These cha nges call for adaptations in academic curricula and professional development programs. There were written dozen papers on justification of international public relations education based on research in the different areas. Some went radical claiming that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“any curriculum that excludes international public relations courses is ineffective in addressing student and practitioner needs, particularly in the next centuryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (21 century).(Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994) p.9 Factors what influence the development of IPRE are mostly the same, however they have different interpretations. The need for international courses in public relations is demonstrated further by the growing global recognition of public relations degree programs and education, a phenomenon that Cantor (1984) predicted more than twenty years ago. And indeed, previous investigation has established that the call for internationalisation of public relations education has been there for a long time and comes from both industry and academia sectors (Neff, 1991, Cottone et al., 1985). However, disagreements between practitioners and educators on a blueprint for international public relations education have also been documented (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994). A decade old survey of U.S. public relations educators and practitioners that explored the state of curricula and content in public relations education found that both practitioners and educators perceive need to incorporate courses and cont ent that will prepare future practitioners for the global landscape (Neff et al., 1999). A Public relations is a multidisciplinary area of study and practice that must change as rapidly as the context and society in which it exists (Baskin, 1989, p. 35). As public relations continues to be a globalised profession, curriculum should be updated to reflect the practice. Ten years later similar study has recorded, that having a global perspective and experience with a variety of cultures are necessary but lacking skills for advanced level practitioners (DiStaso et al., 2009, p.269). An important consideration in providing students with some skills in achieving cross-cultural understanding is the recognition that, as future business professionals and leaders, they will live in a society increasingly characterised by international labour mobility and multiculturalism. The international manager or employee will be an individual who will spend their working lives in several distinct job areas working for several organisations as well as making several sojourns to various international postings. This means that the new style employee will need to be cosmopolitan, multilingual, multifaceted and what Schneider Barsoux (1997, p. 157) refer to as a capacity to operate à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“across national borders somewhat like James Bondà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Public relations education at all levels and in both communication and MBA programmes should educate students to practise public relations globally (Grunig and Grunig, 2002). However, not only do students need to be trained and p repared for this mobility, but even those who do not move to another nation face the recognition that the domestic work environment also requires some responsiveness to differing cultures (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 69). Sriramesh (2009, p.6) makes a reasonable argument that even textbooks in the US and the UK should contain more à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"globalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ cases and interpretations so as to give their own students a more international and holistic education, thus broadening their horizons. It is indicated that authors of universityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s level public relations textbooks have not yet realised the growing importance of international public relations and thus deal marginally with it. The International Public Relations Association (IPRA) has drawn on its international membership to research and recommend standards for public relations education and has established the results of its work in two à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Gold papersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in 1982 and 1990 (IPRA (1982) Gold paper No. 4, A Model for Public Relations Education for Professional Practice, and (1990) Gold Paper No.7, Public Relations Education à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Recommendations and Standards). (White, 1991) p.184-185 Not much has changed since that time. WAYS: Number of general papers were designed in response to the need for public relations education to produce well-trained, culturally sensitive practitioners (Miller, 1992, Ekachai and Komolsevin, 1998, Burbules and Torres, 2000, Bardhan, 2003, Dickerson, 2005, Tuleja, 2008). With the increasing importance of international communication, some educators had considered creating a course dedicated to international public relations (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, Taylor, 2001). In a special edition of Public Relations Review on developing teaching related materials, Taylor (2001) offered guidance to public relations educators on how to develop an international public relations curriculum because: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“New communication technologies and global communication processes create more frequent international communicationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Taylor, 2001, p.2). Nevertheless, some of the Taylorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s conclusions sounded far too decisive: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The most comprehensive way to intern ationalize the public relations curriculum is to offer a course dedicated to international public relationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p. 74). Creedon and Al-Khaja (2005) analysed how adding cultural competency to the list of skills and competencies required in educational programs presents an opportunity to educate a generation that will accept difference and value a global culture separate from national identity. Then again the study was rather limited the authors conducted a survey of accredited programs to determine whether or not a history course was required of their majors. Another empirical-based study argued that just talking about the importance if IPR in the classroom is not sufficient, students have to be able to live international public relations in order to understand its relevance (Bardhan, 1999, p. 19). An important portion of literature on international public relations education suggests the necessity for students to learn about other countries through immersion. According to Porth (Porth, 1997, Tuleja, 2008) the international study tour course may be a legitimate answer to critics of education who urge business schools to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“go globalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and to create stronger ties with the international business and academic communities. More specifically, recent research has also called into question the assumption of studying internationally. For instance, Hutchings et al. (2002, p. 58)suggests that the challenge for the education is how to devise a short-term study program that is effective in exposing international concepts to the student. Yet, foreign travel alone is not the panacea for internationalising PR education because it is difficult to manage even if having resources. Hutchingsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ study is focused on going abroad, even so it may make some contri bution to understanding of global consciousness characterised as moving towards a recognition and appreciation of increasingly global diversity and interdependence. Arguments about which is the best approach to international public relations education, courses and its numbers, or changing the context with its live experience and observations, largely missed the important point that methods have to be fit for their purposes. For some purposes, this is the best, and in other cases the choice will be this and that. Furthermore, although those approaches rest on very different use of resources and possibilities, they can be complementary in the hands of future research and need to be incompatible. Many studies would benefit from mindfully using each approach for different purposes at different stages of the internationalisation. Fuller discussions of this are to be found in some public relations papers, including (Neff, 1991, Dibrova and Kabanova, 2004, Peterson and Mak, 2006, Chung, 2007/8, Dolby and Rahman, 2008). CHALLENGES/BARRIERS: Authors such as Kalupa and Carroll Bateman (1980) have suggested that public relations educators have failed maintain the currency of the teaching in relation to the practice. On the other hand, Holbrook (1985, 1995) has been one of the most prominent critics of the idea of selecting research topics based on what is of interest to practitioners. He has argued that such an orientation tarnishes the purity of the academic endeavour. Amongst other challenges Bardhan (1999) recorded that educators feel unprepared at present to handle the task effectively and lack of interest among students. Falb (1991, 1992) has claimed that because of putting public relations curriculums in either Mass Communications or Journalism public relations has been inhibited in its growth in academic and professional areas. Similar study was conducted by (Pincus et al., 1994), who argued that communication topics do not rate high in MBA programs: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of public relations topics in MBA programs, the profession will never realize entry to the highest levels of corporate decision makingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (1994: p.55) . Making an analogy, this statement might be extended by claiming that If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of international public relations concepts in Postgraduate programs, the profession will lack behind present state of research and practice. This statement finds a reflection in recent research as well. Papers like Sriramesh (2002) claim that it is time for educators to integrate experiences from other continents into the PR body of knowledge, thereby building PR curricula that contribute to training truly multicultural PR professionals. CONCLUSION: Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) underlined the compelling need for a text describing and explaining public relations practices and body of knowledge in different parts of the world. Their call for research has been taken up and largely because it proposed a framework, which made it easier to facilitate global research. Thereby, by critically examining the framework scholars in different countries enrich international public relations body of knowledge and provides prove or counter-arguments to the Global theory. Nonetheless, it might be argued that among those five factors, which have been put forward by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003), one is missing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" professional PR training. In this regard it can be concluded the following. Firstly, such indicator as level of professional training can be considered as a sixth factor influencing practicing public relations in country. Secondly, on the basis of a global concept can be developed a similar concept and subsequently applied to the study of international public relations education. Thirdly, basing on data provided from the five factors, it allowed to determine the degree of standardization vs. localization of IPR programs and courses and to identify barriers and obstacles. Achieving internationalisation of public relations education is concluded to be important for three reasons. First, because many graduating students will be finding employment internationally and benefit from having been educated to be effective in differing cultural settings. Second, because rapid changes in national immigration policies have meant that many more nations are considerably more multicultural than they have been in the past and citizens need to be more conscious of diversity in their national and organisational surroundings. Third, because the pace of changes in the international political economy necessitates that people must be responsive to international economic and business forces. Thus, students who receive an internationally focused public relations education should be more culturally and socially aware and prepared to cope with the demands of rapid international economic, political and social change (Hutchings et al., 2002). Professional education and training are one of the major issues in every country in which public relations is practised. Even the US, where there are hundreds of public relations education are frequently expressed, and senior practitioners rise questions about the value of existing public relations education programmes (White, 1991, p. 184). Sommerness and Beaman (1994) found only few offerings of university courses emphasising international public relations across the United States at that time. However, most recent study has shown that some authors (Hatzitos and Lariscy, 2008) report an increased interest in scholarly research in international public relations and an effort to internationalise the public relations curricula at many U.S. universities. Despite the fact that significant gaps were found between desired outcomes and those actually found in the opinions of both practitioner and educators, certain surveys (Neff et al., 1999) have revealed strong agreement between educator s and practitioners regarding the training, experience and expertise outcomes needed for career development in public relations. Thus, while the goals of public relations education to certain extent seem clear, the means of achieving those goals, including curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, may not be as clear. However, studies such as examining perception, asking whether or not IPR should be emphasised à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t really contribute anymore as the concept have solidly grounded. There have been dozen papers reporting that call for a development. What more valuable for this particular research is the fact that international public relations education requires to be integrated into global PR perspective. International experiences, approaches and cases must be studied and shared between international academic societies. The literature review recorded a substantial gap in international public relations education research elsewhere than U.S. Therefore there is a need in further researching and describing development in IPRE globally. This particular study will explore perceptions and state of IPR education in two countries à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the United Kingdom and Russia.